EFL Teaching in Indonesia: Globalization, Localization and the “Third Place”

Oktavian Mantiri and

Shen Chen

School of Education

University of Newcastle, Australia

Abstract

EFL teachers all over the world are facing a political and pedagogical problem of how to teach English in accordance with the local governments' educational policy. This paper tackles the problem in the social and cultural context of Indonesia. The dichotomy of globalization and localization is the main problem behind Indonesian government's decision in planning and implementing EFL policy. In the past few decades, EFL in Indonesia has shifted from a traditional way of learning to a new direction, namely, from acquisition of linguistic forms to enhancing communicative competence. However, a lack of justification of how, and what should be taught through the EFL policy has resulted in a stagnated state. The current nationalism dominated view may contribute more to the boundaries maintenance hindering the cross-cultural understanding and tolerance. This paper argues that teaching EFL in Indonesia needs to include both global as well as local cultural contents. This paper is based on theoretical analysis of the third place put forward by Kramsch (1993) in terms of the current English teaching practices in Indonesia.

Introduction

When Indonesia gained its Independence from the Dutch in late 1940's, English was chosen to be the official foreign language to be taught in Indonesia (Dardjowidjojo 2003). Despite of the influence of Dutch during the span of approximately four hundred years, Dutch was not chosen as the foreign language for two reasons, namely, firstly it was the language of the colonialist, and secondly, it did not have an international stature (Dardjowidjojo, 2003, p85). Then government further confirmed the official status of English for Indonesia. In 1967 English was officially proclaimed to be the first foreign language for communication purposes. The reasons behind this proposition were firstly, English was considered to be the key to knowledge and literature from English speaking countries as well as from non English speaking countries like Germany and Japan (Reksodiputro and Tasman, 1997; Savage, 1997), and secondly, through English, Indonesian culture would be able to be introduced to the international community (Jazadi 2004, p1).

The idea of introducing a foreign language (FL) is not as simple as learning the first language. In Indonesian case, the official language Bahasa Indonesian has been, to some extent, regarded as a second language to a portion of the total population. Learning English as a foreign language means to command another language system. Foreign culture intertwined in English, at least not until recently, has not been within the consideration by Indonesian government and educationists. The teachers of EFL in Indonesia have been experiencing a dilemma of how to balance the teaching of foreign culture (FC) and Indonesian culture (IC). As Dobson (2001) succinctly explains the importance of cultural understanding: "Too much emphasis on differences can result in a view that there are unbridgeable differences between Us and the Other. On the other hand, failure to address cultural differences will result in arrogant and insensible universalism without empathy towards the Other" (p61).

This paper addresses two potential problems of teaching English as a FL in Indonesia. The first problem is the current status of English in FL education in Indonesia. Why currently the teaching of EFL in Indonesia is not as successful as neighboring ASEAN or Asian countries? The second problem is, as communication is seen to be the most important goal in English education, whether the teachers of EFL should focus on teaching of foreign culture or local culture through English? This paper suggests that there is an increasing concern on the effect and implications of cultural issues in the teaching of English in Indonesia.

English in Indonesia

In the early years of independence, English has had its highest status when it was considered as a second language (Dardjowidjojo, 2003, p57). However this did not last long due to the reason that Bahasa Indonesian had been claimed as the national language. Indonesians were not willing to have English as an additional language. Throughout the colonial history Indonesia had experienced the imposition of different languages, namely, Portuguese, English, Dutch, and Japanese, which were marked with colonialist cultures. As a result, the adoption of Bahasa Indonesia which is formerly Malay (Alisjahbana, 1976) was welcomed by Indonesians because it is a language that is more associated with the local culture. After over fifty years of independence, the status of English language teaching (ELT) in Indonesia remains the same—a foreign language. As Kirkpatrick (2002) puts it clearly that "the teaching of English in schools in Indonesia … has not been successful. Graduates of secondary schools, despite many hours of learning English over several years, often have little English proficiency" (p213). Many Indonesian education professionals are sharing similar view with Kirkpatrick (Reksodiputro and Tasman, 1997; Dardjowidjojo, 2003; Nur 2003; Jazadi, 2004 and Mantiri, 2004).

The problem of ELT in Indonesia is a complex one, covering the linguistic and non-linguistic, pragmatic, and hardware and software areas. Despite of the criticism from different angles, the same old problem has been addressed. ELT problem in Indonesia is as old as the country itself. Much of the discussions addressed to the problem were focusing on the teaching methodologies, the grammar and structure, the students and teachers, and the supporting materials, which unfortunately has not been tackled in the light of the cultural diversity of the nation. It is the cultural context that divides the views of Indonesian teachers of EFL on how English should be taught.

As the unsatisfactory state remained, the quest to look for better approaches continued. Changes have been made in curricula since the independence. The following summary on the changes made in curricula is concentrating on the ELT approaches or methods (Pusat Kurikulum, Balitbang Depdiknas, 2002; Dardjowidjojo in Soekamto, 2003 and Jazadi in Cahyono & Widiati 2004):

• 1945: Old style, grammar-translation-based curriculum
  
• 1958: New style, audio-lingual-based curriculum
  
• 1975: Revised new style, audio-lingual-based curriculum
  
• 1984: Structure-based communicative curriculum
  
• 1994: Revised meaning-based communicative curriculum
  
• 2002: Competency-based curriculum
  

The changes made however, did not match the learning outcome of ELT which is still unsatisfactory. In fact, in 1990, a survey conducted by Indonesian Department of Education and Culture suggested that 95.4% of public and 91.1% of private school teachers claimed that English teaching has been unsuccessful (cited in Priyono, 2004, p17). Moreover, in the most recent study, Mantiri (2004) found out that most of the English teachers as well as the English teacher trainers participated in the research claimed that English teaching has not been a success. This suggested that the availability of the information and technology, and the development of the teaching infrastructures that had taken place, provided little help to improving ELT. As Dardjowidjojo (2003) says that " it is true that nowadays we have more educational facilities, more teachers with sarjana (undergraduate) degrees, more books available, and more opportunities to study" however, he further on saying "we still cannot say that
the teaching of English in Indonesia has become more and more successful"(p45).

In order to find out causes leading to such unsatisfactory state, it is necessary to question the status of English in Indonesian society. It seems that cultural context of Indonesia and the cultural value system of the Indonesian people play a significant role in ELT. A key question that can be asked is whether the existing approach of teaching 'English culture' has an impact on the 'unsuccessful' state of ELT in Indonesia. In order to be able to answer this question we have to firstly look at the current practice of teaching 'English culture' in Indonesian schools.

English Culture vs. Local Culture

When Indonesia gained its independence from the Dutch, there was a lack of English-speaking human resources that could help to promote the use of English. In the early years of independence, Indonesia looked to the United State of America for assistance. During this time there was a high demand of English teachers. The United States, followed by Britain and Australia provided aids by offering scholarships for Indonesians to study English in their countries. As a result more English teachers were trained, and more training facilities were established and became available in Indonesia. English materials became easily available for Indonesians. The teaching materials were mainly imported from overseas. Until today, most of the English materials that are being used in Indonesia are still from English speaking countries. Only few are being published locally in Indonesia. Most, if not all, of the imported materials contain the content of western culture. On the contrast, very few locally produced materials contain the content of Indonesian cultures or cultures of Asian countries.

The increasing demand of English in the early years of independence paid little attention towards the cultural issues that were brought in Indonesia through ELT. Direct copy of the materials and methods from English-speaking countries were and still are common practice in teaching English. However, as Indonesia become more developed as a nation, more people become educated. People become aware of the importance of being able to communicate in English. The traditional way of teaching English, namely, focusing English as a linguistic form has shifted to a more communicative approach in spite of resistance against change (Mantiri, 2004).

Regardless if colonization and foreign influence in the past, Indonesia is considered to preserving its local culture well up to now. Different cultures and subcultures across Indonesia exist harmoniously. Perhaps, the concern to preserve the 'Indonesian culture' has been the main reason for the set back in ELT. One well-known Indonesian educationist, Dardjowidjojo (2003) claims:

In the world of today, it is unrealistic to believe that we are able to maintain our cultural values without being "contaminated" by world culture. The world culture is science and technology; they can be acquired and developed only if we have the means to do it. And the means is English. It only stands to reason, therefore, that English must play an extremely important role. (p.44)

In other words, Indonesia has to strengthen the teaching English in order to be a competitive nation. The issue of being influenced by the world culture should not be a major concern in teaching English. In acquiring and learning English, the learners would be able to gain access to the western science and technology. The question that needs to be answered is how much western culture should be taught in ELT in Indonesia? The answer to this question is crucial. Recent political, economical and social problems in Indonesia have to be taken into account when deciding on the teaching content. The 'Western' sentiment that resulted in the bombings in Bali and in Jakarta could even cause more set backs in the ELT. The stereotype that English is the exclusive property of English speaking countries like United States of America, Britain and Australia (Kachru, 1982) could cause more problems in ELT in Indonesia. Therefore, it is crucial to shift the emphasis of English not as the exclusive property of English speaking countries but English as a lingua franca for Indonesians to communicate with people from ASEAN region.

Kirkpatrick (2002) says that every English speaking country has different cultures and that they vary from one to the other. Indian, Singaporean, "Australian Aboriginal", Philippino, and Malaysian English have their own culture and may not necessarily link to an 'Anglo' culture. Therefore, "it is impossible to identify and isolate an 'English' culture that is common to all speakers of English" (p213) Since English plays a role as the region's lingua franca, in political and economical arena (Ho and Wong, 2003; Kirkpatrick, 2003), it is of importance for Asian or ASEAN people to learn other Asian culture for communication purposes. In Indonesian case, since "English has become the lingua franca of ASEAN and between other countries in East Asia" it is necessary for Indonesia to develop "a new curriculum… that concentrate on ASEAN rather than 'Anglo' cultures" (p213). The reason is that it is more likely for Indonesians to travel across borders in ASEAN region therefore, there needs to be a curriculum that has more local cultural contents.

The Third Place

In her book Context and Culture in Language Teaching, Kramsch (1993) elaborated the view of the third place. People who are "culturally 'displaced', who have grown up in one culture but, having emigrated to another country, raise their family and are active professionally in a culture that is not their own" (p234) are those who are classified as in the third place or being on the fence or being in the third culture.

In her example of the case of African states, the emergence of third culture is rather unique. Instead of separating the learners from "their roots and their native tongue and teach them the ways of English-speaking white South Africa", many English teachers "give an official voice to their cultural heritage and their own educational values through an international language like English" (Kramsch (1993, p253). Mkhonza, from University of Swaziland (cited in Kramsch 1993) says that "by inserting themselves into an international language circuit without letting themselves become hostage to the culture and ideology of any one particular society, foreign language learners in these countries look at their local context with fresh eyes and link it to larger contexts" (p253). The cultural meaning of English as a foreign language in the African states, differ depending on the colonial history and current national policies. However, one thing found to be in common is that the initiative of local educational institutions plays a major role in the success of ELT.

The case of ELT in the African states can be a good example for Indonesian situation. Indonesian situation is more or less similar to the 'third place' described by Kramsch. Indonesia has a wide range of cultures and sub-cultures. The, so called, "Indonesian culture" itself is a new culture that was introduced to Indonesians after the independence. It is hard to define what Indonesian culture or the national culture is due to the extensive variety of cultures in Indonesia. The national culture consists of different cultures. The national motto of Bhineka Tunggal Ika, which means Unity in Diversity, indicates the extensive nature of the cultures in Indonesia.

On the other hand, Indonesians are also introduced either directly or indirectly to another different form of culture through the teaching of English as a foreign language. The emphasis that was given to English as an important language to be learnt by Indonesians, have resulted in Indonesians being exposed to different culture, namely, "English culture". If we believe that Indonesians need to master English to acquire science and technology, then Indonesians have to accept the fact that English is another culture that needs to be learnt. What culture it is, like in African states, has to be determined by the teachers as well as the learners. Most Indonesians, particularly in big cities, are becoming more exposed to the third place or third culture. This can be seen through the availability of English programs on TV, radio, newspapers, and internet. Therefore, based on these facts, it is necessary for Indonesian English teachers to teach English as a third culture for Indonesians. This third culture should not co notate the culture of the inner circle countries nor the outer circle countries. It should be taught as a culture where local context and content are mixed together.

English in Indonesia should be promoted as a language for lingua franca. It is a lingua franca of the expanding circle countries. Local context and content should be given more emphasis. The Government as well as English teachers should work together to improve the ELT as well as to promote the third culture or the third place in Indonesia. The role of the English teachers in Indonesia should be to promote the students the alternative third place of English. Students on the one hand, should be freed to discover the third place by themselves, through teachers' facilitation.

Conclusion

Having seen the development of English in Indonesia and in ASEAN region, theoretically, there are two kinds of status of English in Indonesia. The first is the official status and the second is the unofficial status of English. The official status of English in Indonesia is as a foreign language. From the top of the hierarchy; the government officials, until the bottom of the hierarchy; the teachers and students all would agree to say that English is a foreign language; it is only learned in schools, and it is only as a compulsory subject to learn. The given official status as well as the lack of political will to improve ELT (Dardjowidjojo, 2003) by the government has contributed to the unsatisfactory ELT practices. As Gunarwan says;

The era of globalization has quite a few implications for Indonesia. One of them pertains to the need that this language be better mastered in order for this fourth most populous nation to become an effective member of a global community. English should be mastered by Indonesian not only in the context of national development but also, more importantly, in the context of globalization to enable it to have competitive edges worldwide. More than ever, English is needed not only as a means of international communication, but also as a means, direct or indirect, of elevating the quality of Indonesian human resources to the optimum, that is, until this nation has acquired what Kanter, as quoted by Kristiadi (1997, 52) refers to as the three C's; concept, competence, and connection, the last one referring to networking.

(Cited in Ho, 2003, pp. 73-74)

The "unofficial status" however, is the value of English in the eyes of people. Many government officials, business professionals and elite people are using English as a lingua franca (Ho, and Wong (2003), Kirkpatrick (2002)). Jazadi (2004) claims that "In Indonesia, although English is not as widely used as it is in English-speaking or ex-British colonial countries, natural exposure to the language is relatively ubiquitous and in some cases the language is actively used" (p.6). Nowadays, Indonesians are more exposed to English than ever before. Through the availability of English newspapers published in Indonesia as well as from overseas. TV programs in English are becoming more popular either it be national TV or Pay TV. Radio stations playing English songs and other English program has never been more popular. The popularity and availability of information and technology has penetrated Indonesians. Internet access which generally requires English knowledge is becoming easily available throughout Indonesia. Moreover, people with English knowledge tend to have a better work or positions in the work force and are better paid. In other words, English has penetrated Indonesians in every day lives from the home to the work place. Indonesian will even be more exposed to English as the globalization and global economy get underway.

In this situation, it is important for people who are involved in ELT as well as the government to look for the common ground or the third place where English needs to stand. Looking at the unsatisfactory result of ELT in schools, and the current unofficial status of English, it is necessary to balance these situations, through filling the cultural gap in ELT. In other words, the preservation of the national culture can still be done through the teaching of English that carries the content of local culture and ASEAN culture.

In general, there are two possible solutions to the ELT problems in Indonesia. The first is that the government needs to have a stronger support and political will to improve ELT. The official status of English has to be clear. The government has to take into consideration the current situation of unofficial status of English. Perhaps, it is about time for the government to publicly address and support the growing demand of English as a lingua franca in Indonesia in particular, and in ASEAN in general. The second is the adoption of ASEAN culture in ELT materials seems most suitable for Indonesian situation. It is more likely for Indonesians to be exposed to the culture in this region. Therefore, there needs to be a more emphasis on the local culture or the ASEAN culture in ELT. This paper proposes a balance between English culture and local culture in ELT through focusing the third place just as Kramsch (1993) says that it is the responsibility of the teachers to present and introduce to the students the alternative of ELT and let the students decide for themselves where they stand for in terms of the culture.

References

Alisjahbana, S. (1976). Language planning for modernization: the case of Indonesian and Malaysian. The Netherlands: Mouton & Co., The Hague.

Balitbang, Depdiknas. (2002). Pusat Kurikulum, Balitbang Depdiknas. Kurikulum berbasis kompetensi: kegiatan belajar mengajar. Retrieved August 21, 2003, from http://www.puskur.or.id

Dardjowidjojo, S. (2003). English teaching in Indonesia. In Soekamto, K. E. (Ed.) Rampai bahasa, pendidikan, dan budaya: kumpulan esai Soenjono Dardjowidjojo (pp. 83-92). Jakarta: Yayasan obor Indonesia.

Dardjowidjojo, S. (2003). The role of English in Indonesia: A dilemma. In Soekamto, K. E. (Ed.) Rampai Bahasa, pendidikan, dan budaya: kumpulan esai Soenjono Dardjowidjojo (pp. 41-50). Jakarta: Yayasan obor Indonesia

Dobson, D. (2001). Teaching of culture within foreign language teaching and its relationship to nationalism. In Australian review of applied linguistics, 24, 61-73.

Ho, W. K. (2003). RELC's role in ELT in Southeast Asia (1968 to 2002): Mediating between the centre and the periphery. In Ho, W. K. & R. Y. L. Wong (Eds.) English language teaching in East Asia today: Changing policies and practices (pp. 49-80). Singapore: Eastern University Press.

Jazadi, I. (2004). ELT in Indonesia in the context of English as a global language. In Cahyono, B. Y. and Widiati, U. (Eds.) The tapestry of English language teaching and learning in Indonesia (pp. 1-15) Indonesia: State University of Malang Press.

Kachru, B. B. (1982). The other tongue: English across cultures. Urban, IL: University of Illinois Press

Kenny, B. and Savage, W. (1997). Language and development: teachers in a changing world. UK: Longman.

Kirkpatrick, A. (2002). ASEAN and Asian cultures and models: implications for the ELT curriculum and for teacher selection. In Kirkpatrick, A. (Ed.) English in Asia: communication, identity, power and education (pp. 213-224). Melbourne: Language Australia.

Mantiri, O. (2004). ELT in Indonesia: Current practices. (In progress)

Mantiri, O. (2004). Problematic issues of ELT in Indonesia. In Cahyono, B. Y. and Widiati, U. (Eds.) The tapestry of English language teaching and learning in Indonesia (pp. 29-35). Indonesia: State University of Malang Press.

Nur, C. (2003). English language teaching in Indonesia: changing policies and practical constraints. In Ho, W. K. & Wong, R. Y. L. (Eds.) English language teaching in East Asia today: Changing policies and practices (pp. 163-162). Singapore: Eastern University Press.

Priyono. (2004). Logical problems of teaching English as a foreign language in Indonesia. In Cahyono, B. Y. and Widiati, U. (Eds.) The tapestry of English language teaching and learning in Indonesia (pp. 17-28). Indonesia: State University of Malang Press.

Reksodiputro, N. M. and Tasman, D. (1997). Two language centers in Indonesia. In Kenny, B. and Savage, W. Language and development: teachers in a changing world (pp. 52-62). UK: Longman.

Savage, W. (1997). Language and development. In Kenny, B. and Savage, W. Language and development: teachers in a changing world (pp. 281-325). UK: Longman.

Soekamto, E. K. (2003). Rampai bahasa, pendidikan, dan budaya: kumpulan esai Soenjono Dardjowidjojo. Jakarta: Yayasan obor Indonesia.